what is the greek word for city, used to designate the independent city-states of ancient greece?

Classical Greek term for either the ancestors of the Greeks or the pre-Greek inhabitants of Hellenic republic

The proper noun Pelasgians (Ancient Greek: Πελασγοί, Pelasgoí, singular: Πελασγός, Pelasgós) was used past classical Greek writers to refer either to the ancestors of the Greeks,^[i] ^[ii] or to all the inhabitants of Greece before the emergence or arrival of the Greeks. In general, "Pelasgian" has come to hateful more broadly all the ethnic inhabitants of the Aegean Sea region and their cultures, "a hold-all term for any ancient, primitive and presumably indigenous people in the Greek world".

During the classical period, enclaves nether that proper name survived in several locations of mainland Greece, Crete, and other regions of the Aegean. Populations identified as "Pelasgian" spoke a language or languages that at the time Greeks identified as "barbarian", though some ancient writers nonetheless described the Pelasgians as Greeks. A tradition also survived that big parts of Greece had once been Pelasgian earlier being Hellenized. These parts fell largely, though far from exclusively, within the territory which past the 5th century BC was inhabited by those speakers of ancient Greek who were identified equally Ionians and Aeolians.^[4]

Etymology [edit]

Much similar all other aspects of the "Pelasgians", their ethnonym (Pelasgoi) is of extremely uncertain provenance and etymology. Michael Sakellariou collects fifteen different etymologies proposed for it by philologists and linguists during the last 200 years, though he admits that "about [...] are fanciful".^[5]

An aboriginal etymology based on mere similarity of sounds linked pelasgos to pelargos ("stork")^[six] and postulates that the Pelasgians were migrants like storks, possibly from Egypt, where they nest.^[7] Aristophanes deals effectively with this etymology in his comedy The Birds. One of the laws of "the storks" in the satirical cloud-cuckoo-land, playing upon the Athenian belief that they were originally Pelasgians, is that grown-upwards storks must support their parents by migrating elsewhere and conducting warfare.^[eight]

Gilbert Murray summarized the derivation from pelas gē ("neighboring land"), electric current at his fourth dimension: "If Pelasgoi is continued with πέλας, 'nearly', the word would mean 'neighbour' and would denote the nearest strange people to the invading Greeks".^[9]

Julius Pokorny derived Pelasgoi from *pelag-skoi ("flatland-inhabitants"); specifically "inhabitants of the Thessalian patently".^[ten] He details a previous derivation, which appears in English at least as early as William Gladstone'southward Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age.^[eleven] If the Pelasgians were non Indo-Europeans, the name in this derivation must accept been assigned by the Hellenes. Ernest Klein argued that the ancient Greek word for "sea", pelagos and the Doric give-and-take plagos, "side" (which is flat) shared the aforementioned root, *plāk-, and that *pelag-skoi therefore meant "the sea men", where the body of water is flat.^[12] This could be connected to the maritime marauders referred to as the Bounding main People in Egyptian records.

Aboriginal literary evidence [edit]

Map of Pelasgians and Pelasgus.

Literary assay has been ongoing since classical Greece, when the writers of those times read previous works on the subject. No definitive answers were ever forthcoming by this method; it rather served to better define the problems. The method possibly reached a peak in the Victorian era when new methods of systematic comparison began to exist applied in philology. Typical of the era is the study by William Ewart Gladstone, who was a trained classicist.^[13] Until further ancient texts come up to lite, advances on the subject cannot be fabricated. The most likely source of progress regarding the Pelasgians continues to be archaeology and related sciences.

Poets [edit]

Homer [edit]

The Pelasgians first appear in the poems of Homer: those who are stated to exist Pelasgians in the Iliad are amid the allies of Troy. In the department known as the Catalogue of Trojans, they are mentioned between the Hellespontine cities and the Thracians of due south-eastern Europe (i.eastward., on the Hellespontine edge of Thrace).^[14] Homer calls their boondocks or district "Larisa"^[15] and characterises it as fertile, and its inhabitants as historic for their spearsmanship. He records their chiefs as Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of Teutamus, thus giving all of them names that were Greek or and so thoroughly Hellenized that any foreign chemical element has been effaced.

In the Odyssey, Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians amid the tribes in the ninety cities of Crete, "language mixing with linguistic communication side by side".^[16] Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper", Achaeans, Cydonians (of the city of Cydonia/modern Chania), Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians".^[17]

The Iliad besides refers to "Pelasgic Argos",^[18] which is most likely to exist the plain of Thessaly,^[19] and to "Pelasgic Zeus", living in and ruling over Dodona,^[20] which must be the oracular one in Epirus. However, neither passage mentions actual Pelasgians; Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaeans specifically inhabit Thessaly and the Selloi are around Dodona. They all fought on the Greek side.

According to the Iliad, Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the post-obit tribes,

Towards the sea lie the Carians and the Paeonians, with curved bows, and the Leleges and Caucones, and the goodly Pelasgi.^[21]

Poets subsequently Homer [edit]

Afterward Greek poets did not agree, either, about which sites and regions were "Pelasgian".

Hesiod [edit]

Hesiod, in a fragment known from Strabo, calls Dodona, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians",^[22] thus explaining why Homer, in referring to Zeus as he ruled over Dodona, did not fashion him "Dodonic" but Pelasgic Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus (Greek: Πελασγός, the eponymous ancestor of the Pelasgians) was the father of King Lycaon of Arcadia.^[23]

Asius of Samos [edit]

Asius of Samos (Aboriginal Greek: Ἄσιος ὁ Σάμιος) describes Pelasgus every bit the first human, born of the earth.^[24]

Aeschylus [edit]

In Aeschylus'south play, The Suppliants, the Danaids fleeing from Egypt seek asylum from King Pelasgus of Argos, which he says is on the Strymon including Perrhaebia in the north, the Thessalian Dodona and the slopes of the Pindus mountains on the w and the shores of the body of water on the e;^[25] that is, a territory including just somewhat larger than classical Pelasgiotis. The southern boundary is not mentioned; however, Apis is said to have come to Argos from Naupactus "beyond" (peras),^[26] implying that Argos includes all of east Greece from the north of Thessaly to the Peloponnesian Argos, where the Danaids are probably to be conceived every bit having landed. He claims to dominion the Pelasgians and to exist the "kid of Palaichthon (or 'ancient globe') whom the earth brought forth".

The Danaids call the land the "Apian hills" and claim that it understands the karbana audan ^[27] (accusative case, and in the Dorian dialect), which many translate as "barbaric voice communication" only Karba (where the Karbanoi live) is in fact a non-Greek discussion. They merits to descend from ancestors in ancient Argos even though they are of a "dark race" (melanthes ... genos).^[28] Pelasgus admits that the state was in one case chosen Apia simply compares them to the women of Libya and Egypt and wants to know how they tin can be from Argos on which they cite descent from Io.^[29]

Co-ordinate to Strabo, Aeschylus' Suppliants defines the original homeland of the Pelasgians as the region around Mycenae.^[7]

Sophocles [edit]

Sophocles presents Inachus, in a fragment of a missing play entitled Inachus,^[30] as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, an unusual hyphenated noun construction, "Tyrsenians-Pelasgians". Estimation is open up, fifty-fifty though translators typically make a decision, but Tyrsenians may well be the ethnonym Tyrrhenoi.

Euripides [edit]

Euripides calls the inhabitants of Argos "Pelasgians" in his Orestes ^[31] and The Phoenician Women.^[32] In a lost play entitled Archelaus, he says that Danaus, on coming to reside in the city of Inachus (Argos), formulated a law whereby the Pelasgians were now to be chosen Danaans.^[7]

Ovid [edit]

The Roman poet Ovid describes the Greeks of the Trojan War equally Pelasgians in his Metamorphoses:^[33]

Sadly his father, Priam, mourned for him, not knowing that young Aesacus had assumed wings on his shoulders, and was nonetheless alive. And so also Hector with his brothers fabricated complete but unavailing sacrifice, upon a tomb which bore his carved proper name. Paris was absent-minded. But presently afterwards, he brought into that state a ravished wife, Helen, the crusade of a disastrous war, together with a chiliad ships, and all the bang-up Pelasgian nation. [...] Here, when a sacrifice had been prepared to Jove, according to the custom of their country, and when the ancient altar glowed with burn down, the Greeks observed an azure colored ophidian crawling up in a airplane tree near the place where they had just begun their sacrifice. Amidst the highest branches was a nest, with twice 4 birds--and those the snake seized together with the female parent-bird as she was fluttering round her loss. And every bird the ophidian buried in his greedy maw. All stood amazed: but Calchas, who perceived the truth, exclaimed, "Rejoice Pelasgian men, for we shall conquer; Troy volition autumn; although the toil of state of war must long continue--and then the nine birds equal ix long years of war." And while he prophesied, the serpent, coiled about the tree, was transformed to a rock, curled crooked every bit a snake.

Historians [edit]

Hecataeus of Miletus [edit]

Hecataeus of Miletus in a fragment from Genealogiai states that the genos ("association") descending from Deucalion ruled Thessaly and that it was chosen "Pelasgia" from king Pelasgus.^[34] A 2d fragment states that Pelasgus was the son of Zeus and Niobe and that his son Lycaon founded a dynasty of kings of Arcadia.^[35]

Acusilaus [edit]

A fragment from the writings of Acusilaus asserts that the Peloponnesians were called "Pelasgians" afterwards Pelasgus, a son of Zeus and Niobe.^[36]

Hellanicus [edit]

Hellanicus of Lesbos concerns himself with one word in ane line of the Iliad, "pasture-land of horses", applied to Argos in the Peloponnesus.^[37] According to Hellanicus, from Pelasgus and his wife Menippe came a line of kings: Phrastōr, Amyntōr, Teutamides and Nanas (kings of Pelasgiotis in Thessaly).^[38] During Nanas's reign, the Pelasgians were driven out by the Greeks and departed for Italy. They landed at the rima oris of the Po River, near the Etruscan city of Spina, and then took the inland city "Crotona" (Κρότωνα), and from at that place colonized Tyrrhenia. The inference is that Hellanicus believed the Pelasgians of Thessaly (and indirectly of the Peloponnese) to have been the ancestors of the Etruscans.^[39]

Herodotus [edit]

In the Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus fabricated many references to the Pelasgians. In Volume 1, the Pelasgians are mentioned inside the context of Croesus seeking to learn who the strongest Greeks were in order to befriend them.^[xl] Afterwards, Herodotus ambivalently classified the Pelasgian language as "barbaric", however he thought of the Pelasgians to have been substantially Greek. Herodotus also discussed various areas inhabited (or previously inhabited) by Pelasgians/Pelasgian-speakers along with their different neighbors/co-residents:^[41] ^[42]

I am unable to state with certainty what linguistic communication the Pelasgians spoke, just we could consider the speech communication of the Pelasgians who still exist in settlements above Tyrrhenia in the city of Kreston, formerly neighbors to the Dorians who at that fourth dimension lived in the state now chosen Thessaliotis; also the Pelasgians who once lived with the Athenians and so settled Plakia and Skylake in the Hellespont; and forth with those who lived with all the other communities and were once Pelasgian but inverse their names. If one can judge past this bear witness, the Pelasgians spoke a barbarian language. And so, if the Pelasgian language was spoken in all these places, the people of Attica being originally Pelasgian, must have learned a new language when they became Hellenes. Every bit a matter of fact, the people of Krestonia and Plakia no longer speak the aforementioned language, which shows that they proceed to use the dialect they brought with them when they migrated to those lands.

Furthermore, Herodotus discussed the relationship between the Pelasgians and the (other) Greeks,^[43] ^[44] which, according to Pericles Georges, reflected the "rivalry inside Greece itself between [...] Dorian Sparta and Ionian Athens."^[45] Specifically, Herodotus stated that the Hellenes separated from the Pelasgians with the one-time grouping surpassing the latter grouping numerically:^[46]

Equally for the Hellenes, it seems obvious to me that e'er since they came into existence they take always used the same language. They were weak at first, when they were separated from the Pelasgians, just they grew from a small group into a multitude, especially when many peoples, including other barbarians in cracking numbers, had joined them. Moreover, I do not retrieve the Pelasgian, who remained barbarians, ever grew appreciably in number or power.

In Book 2, Herodotus alluded to the Pelasgians every bit inhabitants of Samothrace, an island located just north of Troy, earlier coming to Attica.^[47] Moreover, Herodotus wrote that the Pelasgians simply called their gods theoi prior to naming them on the grounds that the gods established all affairs in their order (thentes); the author as well stated that the gods of the Pelasgians were the Cabeiri.^[48] Afterwards, Herodotus stated that the entire territory of Hellenic republic (i.e., Hellas) was initially chosen "Pelasgia".^[49]

In Book 5, Herodotus mentioned the Pelasgians as inhabitants of the islands of Lemnos and Imbros.^[50]

In Book 6, the Pelasgians of Lemnos were originally Hellespontine Pelasgians who had been living in Athens merely whom the Athenians resettled on Lemnos and and so constitute information technology necessary to reconquer the isle.^[51] This expulsion of (non-Athenian) Pelasgians from Athens may reflect, according to the historian Robert Buck, "a dim memory of forwarding of refugees, closely akin to the Athenians in spoken language and custom, to the Ionian colonies".^[52] As well, Herodotus wrote that the Pelasgians on the island of Lemnos reverse Troy once kidnapped the Hellenic women of Athens for wives, only the Athenian wives created a crisis by teaching their children "the language of Attica" instead of the Pelasgian.^[53]

In Book seven, Herodotus mentioned "the Pelasgian city of Antandrus"^[54] and wrote well-nigh the Ionian inhabitants of "the land now called Achaea" (i.e., northwestern Peloponnese) being "chosen, co-ordinate to the Greek account, Aegialean Pelasgi, or Pelasgi of the Sea Shore"; afterwards, they were called Ionians.^[55] Moreover, Herodotus mentioned that the Aegean islanders "were a Pelasgian race, who in later times took the name Ionians" and that the Aeolians, according to the Hellenes, were known aforetime equally "Pelasgians."^[56]

In Book 8, Herodotus mentioned that the Pelasgians of Athens were previously chosen Cranai.^[57]

Thucydides [edit]

In the History of the Peloponnesian State of war, the Greek historian Thucydides wrote nearly the Pelasgians stating that:^[58]

Before the time of Hellen, son of Deucalion [...] the country went by the names of the different tribes, in item of the Pelasgian. It was not till Hellen and his sons grew strong in Phthiotis, and were invited as allies into the other cities, that i by 1 they gradually acquired from the connection the name of Hellenes; though a long time elapsed before that proper name could fasten itself upon all.

The writer regards the Athenians as having lived in scattered contained settlements in Attica; simply at some time later Theseus, they inverse residence to Athens, which was already populated. A plot of country beneath the Acropolis was called "Pelasgian" and was regarded as cursed, but the Athenians settled there anyway.^[59]

In connection with the campaign confronting Amphipolis, Thucydides mentions that several settlements on the promontory of Actē were home to:^[60]

[...] mixed barbarian races speaking the two languages. There is also a small Chalcidian chemical element; but the greater number are Tyrrheno-Pelasgians in one case settled in Lemnos and Athens, and Bisaltians, Crestonians and Eonians; the towns all being small ones.

Ephorus [edit]

The historian Ephorus, building on a fragment from Hesiod that attests to a tradition of an aboriginal Pelasgian people in Arcadia, developed a theory of the Pelasgians as a people living a "military machine fashion of life" (stratiōtikon bion) "and that, in converting many peoples to the same way of life, they imparted their name to all", pregnant "all of Hellas". They colonized Crete and extended their rule over Epirus, Thessaly and by implication over wherever else the ancient authors said they were, beginning with Homer. The Peloponnese was called "Pelasgia".^[7]

Dionysius of Halicarnassus [edit]

In the Roman Antiquities, Dionysius of Halicarnassus in several pages gives a synoptic estimation of the Pelasgians based on the sources available to him and then, concluding that Pelasgians were Greek:^[61]

Later on some of the Pelasgians who inhabited Thessaly, as information technology is now chosen, being obliged to leave their land, settled amid the Aborigines and jointly with them fabricated war upon the Sicels. Information technology is possible that the Aborigines received them partly in the promise of gaining their help, but I believe it was importantly on account of their kinship; for the Pelasgians, too, were a Greek nation originally from the Peloponnesus [...]

He goes on to add that the nation wandered a cracking deal.^[61] They were originally natives of "Achaean Argos" descended from Pelasgus, the son of Zeus and Niobe.^[61] They migrated from there to Haemonia (later called Thessaly), where they "drove out the barbarian inhabitants" and divided the land into Phthiotis, Achaia, and Pelasgiotis, named after Achaeus, Phthius and Pelasgus, "the sons of Larissa and Poseidon."^[61] Subsequently, "about the sixth generation they were driven out by the Curetes and Leleges, who are now chosen Aetolians and Locrians".^[61]

From there, the Pelasgians dispersed to Crete, the Cyclades, Histaeotis, Boeotia, Phocis, Euboea, the coast along the Hellespont and the islands, especially Lesbos, which had been colonized by Macar son of Crinacus.^[62] Most went to Dodona and somewhen being driven from at that place to Italia (and then chosen Saturnia), they landed at Spina at the mouth of the Po River.^[62] Still others crossed the Apennine Mountains to Umbria and being driven from there went to the land of the Aborigines where they consented to a treaty and settled at Velia.^[63] They and the Aborigenes took over Umbria only were dispossessed by the Tyrrhenians.^[63] The author so continues to detail the tribulations of the Pelasgians and then goes on to the Tyrrhenians, whom he is conscientious to distinguish from the Pelasgians.^[64]

Geographers [edit]

Pausanias [edit]

In his Description of Greece, Pausanias mentions the Arcadians who country that Pelasgus (along with his followers) was the outset inhabitant of their state.^[65] Upon becoming king, Pelasgus invented huts, sheep-peel coats, and a diet consisting of acorns while governing the state named after him, "Pelasgia".^[66] When Arcas became king, Pelasgia was renamed "Arcadia" and its inhabitants (the Pelasgians) were renamed "Arcadians".^[67] Pausanias also mentions the Pelasgians every bit responsible for creating a wooden image of Orpheus in a sanctuary of Demeter at Therae,^[68] likewise as expelling the Minyans and Lacedaemonians from Lemnos.^[69]

Strabo [edit]

Strabo dedicates a section of his Geography to the Pelasgians, relating both his own opinions and those of prior writers. He begins past stating:^[7]

Almost every one is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient race spread throughout the whole of Greece, merely especially in the country of the Æolians well-nigh to Thessaly.

He defines Pelasgian Argos as being "between the outlets of the Peneus River and Thermopylae as far equally the mountainous land of Pindus" and states that it took its name from Pelasgian rule. He includes also the tribes of Epirus equally Pelasgians (based on the opinions of "many"). Lesbos is named Pelasgian. Caere was settled by Pelasgians from Thessaly, who called information technology by its onetime name, "Agylla". Pelasgians also settled around the mouth of the Tiber River in Italian republic at Pyrgi and a few other settlements under a king, Maleos.^[seventy]

Language [edit]

In the absence of sure cognition about the identity (or identities) of the Pelasgians, various theories have been proposed. Some of the more prevalent theories supported by scholarship are presented beneath. Since Greek is classified equally an Indo-European language, the major question of business organisation is whether Pelasgian was an Indo-European linguistic communication.

Reception [edit]

The theory that Pelasgian was an Indo-European language, which has "fascinated scholars" and full-bodied inquiry during the 2nd part of the 20th century, has since been critiqued; an emerging consensus among modern linguists is that the substrate language spoken in the southern Balkans was not-Indo-European.^[71] García-Ramón remarked that "the attempt to decide phonological rules for an Indo-European pre-Greek language ('Pelasgian') [...] is considered a complete failure today",^[72] while Beekes (2018) notes that "one of the demerits of Georgiev's Pelasgian theory was that it drew attending away from the Pre-Greek material itself", final that "the search for Pelasgian was an expensive and useless distraction."^[73] However, Biliana Mihaylova finds no contradiction between "the idea of [an] Indo-European Pre-Greek substratum" and "the possibility of the being of an earlier not-Indo-European layer in Greece" given certain Pre-Greek words possessing Indo-European "pattern[s] of word germination."^[74]

Pelasgian equally Indo-European [edit]

Greek [edit]

Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, an English writer and intellectual, argued that the Pelasgians spoke Greek based on the fact that areas traditionally inhabited by the "Pelasgi" (i.e. Arcadia and Attica) only spoke Greek and the few surviving Pelasgian words and inscriptions (i.eastward., Lamina Borgiana, Herodotus 2.52.one) betray Greek linguistic features despite the classical identification of Pelasgian as a barbaric language.^[75] Co-ordinate to Thomas Harrison of Saint Andrews University, the Greek etymology of Pelasgian terms mentioned in Herodotus such as θεοί (derived from θέντες) indicates that the "Pelasgians spoke a language at least 'akin to' Greek".^[76] According to French classical scholar Pierre Henri Larcher, If this linguistic affiliation is true, then it proves that the Pelasgians and the Greeks were the aforementioned people.^[77]

Anatolian [edit]

In western Anatolia, many toponyms with the "-ss-" infix derive from the adjectival suffix also seen in cuneiform Luwian and some Palaic; the archetype case is Statuary Historic period Tarhuntassa (loosely meaning "City of the Storm God Tarhunta"), and after Parnassus possibly related to the Luwian discussion parna- or "house". These elements have led to a second theory that Pelasgian was to some caste an Anatolian language, or that it had areal influences from Anatolian languages.^[78]

Thracian [edit]

Vladimir I. Georgiev, a Bulgarian linguist, asserted that the Pelasgians spoke an Indo-European linguistic communication and were, more specifically, related to the Thracians.^[79] ^[80] Georgiev as well proposed, relying on a sound-shift model, that pelasgoi was a cognate of a Proto-Indo-European root and Greek Πέλαγος pelagos "sea".

Georgiev too suggested that the Pelasgians were a sub-grouping of the Bronze Historic period Sea Peoples and identifiable in Egyptian inscriptions as the exonym PRŚT or PLŚT. Nonetheless, this Egyptian name has more often been read every bit a cognate of a Hebrew exonym, פלשת Peleshet (Pəlešeth) – that is, the Biblical Philistines.

Albanian [edit]

In 1854, an Austrian diplomat and Albanian linguistic communication specialist, Johann Georg von Hahn, identified the Pelasgian language with Proto-Albanian.^[81] This theory is not supported by any scientific evidence, and it's seen as a myth by mod scholars.^[82] ^[83]

Undiscovered Indo-European [edit]

Albert Joris Van Windekens (1915—1989) offered rules for an unattested hypothetical Indo-European Pelasgian language, selecting vocabulary for which there was no Greek etymology among the names of places, heroes, animals, plants, garments, artifacts and social organization.^[84] ^[85] His 1952 essay Le Pélasgique was skeptically received.^[86]

Pelasgian as pre-Indo-European [edit]

Unknown origin [edit]

One theory utilizes the name "Pelasgian" to describe the inhabitants of the lands around the Aegean Body of water before the arrival of Proto-Greek speakers, as well as traditionally identified enclaves of descendants that yet existed in classical Greece. The theory derives from the original concepts of the philologist Paul Kretschmer, whose views prevailed throughout the offset one-half of the 20th century and are however given some credibility today.

Though Wilamowitz-Moellendorff wrote them off as mythical, the results of archaeological excavations at Çatalhöyük by James Mellaart and Fritz Schachermeyr led them to conclude that the Pelasgians had migrated from Asia Minor to the Aegean basin in the 4th millennium BC.^[87] In this theory, a number of possible not-Indo-European linguistic and cultural features are attributed to the Pelasgians:

Groups of apparently non-Indo-European loan words in the Greek language, borrowed in its prehistoric development.
Non-Greek and possibly not-Indo-European roots for many Greek toponyms in the region, containing the consonantal strings "-nth-" (e.g., Corinth, Probalinthos, Zakynthos, Amarynthos), or its equivalent "-ns-" (eastward.yard., Tiryns); "-tt-", e.thou., in the peninsula of Attica, Mounts Hymettus and Brilettus/Brilessus, Lycabettus Colina, the deme of Gargettus, etc.; or its equivalent "-ss-": Larissa, Mount Parnassus, the river names Kephissos and Ilissos, the Cretan cities of Amnis(south)bone and Tylissos etc. These strings also appear in other non-Greek, presumably substratally inherited nouns such as asáminthos (bathtub), ápsinthos (absinth), terébinthos (terebinth), etc. Other placenames with no apparent Indo-European etymology include Athēnai (Athens), Mykēnai (Mycene), Messēnē, Kyllēnē (Cyllene), Cyrene, Mytilene, etc. (note the common -ēnai/ēnē ending); also Thebes, Delphi, Lindos, Rhamnus, and others.^[88]
Certain mythological stories or deities that seem to take no parallels in the mythologies of other Indo-European peoples (eastward. m., the Olympians Athena, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite, whose origins seem Anatolian or Levantine).
Non-Greek inscriptions in the Mediterranean, such as the Lemnos stele.

The historian George Grote summarizes the theory as follows:^[89]

There are, indeed, various names affirmed to designate the ante-Hellenic inhabitants of many parts of Hellenic republic – the Pelasgi, the Leleges, the Curetes, the Kaukones, the Aones, the Temmikes, the Hyantes, the Telchines, the Boeotian Thracians, the Teleboae, the Ephyri, the Phlegyae, &c. These are names belonging to legendary, not to historical Greece – extracted out of a variety of conflicting legends by the logographers and subsequent historians, who strung together out of them a supposed history of the past, at a time when the weather condition of historical evidence were very little understood. That these names designated real nations may be true only here our knowledge ends.

The poet and mythologist Robert Graves asserts that certain elements of that mythology originate with the native Pelasgian people (namely the parts related to his concept of the White Goddess, an archetypical Earth Goddess) cartoon additional support for his conclusion from his interpretations of other ancient literature: Irish gaelic, Welsh, Greek, Biblical, Gnostic, and medieval writings.^[xc]

Minoan [edit]

According to the Russian historian and linguist Igor M. Diakonoff the Pelasgians may have been related to the Minoans.^[91] A number of scholars consider Minoan to exist essentially the same language as Pelasgian.^[92] ^[93]

Ibero-Caucasian [edit]

Some Georgian scholars (including R. V. Gordeziani, Yard. G. Abdushelishvili and Z. Gamsakhurdia) connect the Pelasgians with the Ibero-Caucasian peoples of the prehistoric Caucasus, known to the Greeks as Colchians and Iberians.^[94] ^[95] These scholars portray Georgia as a source of spirituality in the Greek globe by manipulating Greek and Roman sources in a highly dubious manner.^[96]

Archaeology [edit]

Attica [edit]

During the early 20th century, archaeological excavations conducted by the Italian Archaeological School and by the American Classical School on the Athenian Acropolis and on other sites within Attica revealed Neolithic dwellings, tools, pottery and skeletons from domesticated animals (i.e., sheep, fish). All of these discoveries showed pregnant resemblances to the Neolithic discoveries made on the Thessalian acropolises of Sesklo and Dimini. These discoveries help provide concrete confirmation of the literary tradition that describes the Athenians every bit the descendants of the Pelasgians, who announced to descend continuously from the Neolithic inhabitants in Thessaly. Overall, the archaeological evidence indicates that the site of the Acropolis was inhabited past farmers as early as the 6th millennium BC.^[97] ^{[Notation 1]}

Contrary to what Prokopiou suggests about the results of the American excavations well-nigh the Clepsydra, Sara Immerwahr in her definitive publication of the prehistoric material unequivocally states that no Dimini-blazon pottery was unearthed.^[98]

Lemnos [edit]

In August and September 1926, members of the Italian School of Archeology conducted trial excavations on the island of Lemnos. A short account of their excavations appeared in the Messager d'Athènes for iii January 1927. The overall purpose of the excavations was to shed calorie-free on the island'southward "Etrusco-Pelasgian" civilization. The excavations were conducted on the site of the city of Hephaisteia (i.e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, co-ordinate to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades of Athens. There, a necropolis (c. 9th-8th centuries BC) was discovered revealing statuary objects, pots, and more than than 130 ossuaries. The ossuaries contained distinctly male and female funeral ornaments. Male ossuaries independent knives and axes whereas female ossuaries contained earrings, statuary pins, necklaces, golden diadems, and bracelets. The decorations on some of the gilt objects contained spirals of Mycenean origin, just had no Geometric forms. According to their ornament, the pots discovered at the site were from the Geometric catamenia. Nevertheless, the pots also preserved spirals indicative of Mycenean fine art. The results of the excavations signal that the Early Atomic number 26 Historic period inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek ra-mi-ni-ja, "Lemnian woman", written in Linear B syllabic script.^[99] ^[100] ^{[Note two]}

Boeotia [edit]

During the 1980s, the Skourta Evidently Project identified Middle Helladic and Late Helladic sites on mountain summits near the plains of Skourta in Boeotia. These fortified mount settlements were, according to tradition, inhabited past Pelasgians up until the end of the Bronze Age. Moreover, the location of the sites is an indication that the Pelasgian inhabitants sought to distinguish themselves "ethnically" (a fluid term^[101]) and economically from the Mycenaean Greeks who controlled the Skourta Plain.^[102] ^{[Notation 3]}

Meet also [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pelasgians.

Barbarian
Dacians
Etruscan culture
Leleges
Minyans
Names of the Greeks
Old European culture
Paleo-Balkan languages
Pelasgian cosmos myth
Philistines
Pre-Greek substrate
Body of water peoples
Falisci
Thracians
Tyrrhenians

Notes [edit]

^ According to Prokopiou: "Some forty years ago excavations on the Athenian Acropolis and on other sites in Attica brought to light many indications of neolithic life - dwellings, vases, tools, skeletons of sheep - which confirmed the traditions recorded by Herodotus that the Athenians were descended from the Pelasgians, the neolithic inhabitants of Thessaly. Indeed the neolithic vases of Attica date from the earliest neolithic age (5520–4900) like the ceramics from the Thessalian acropolis of Sesclos, as well as from the later neolithic age (4900–3200) like those from the other Thessalian acropolis of Dimini...The search for traces of the neolithic age on the Acropolis began in 1922 with the excavations of the Italian Archaeological School well-nigh the Aesclepium. Some other settlement was discovered in the vicinity of the Odeion of Pericles where many sherds of pottery and a stone axe, both of Sesklo type, were unearthed. Excavations carried out by the American Classical Schoolhouse about the Clepshydra uncovered twenty-one wells and countless pieces of handmade pottery, sherds of Dimini type, implements of later Stone Age and bones of domestic animals and fish. The discoveries reinforced the theory that permanent settlement by farmers with their flocks, their stone and bone tools and ceramic utensils had taken place on the rock of the Acropolis as early on as the 6th millennium."
^ Professor Della Seta reports: "The lack of weapons of bronze, the affluence of weapons of fe, and the type of the pots and the pins gives the impression that the necropolis belongs to the 9th or 8th century BC. That it did not belong to a Greek population, but to a population which, in the eyes of the Hellenes, appeared barbarous, is shown by the weapons. The Greek weapon, dagger or spear, is lacking: the weapons of the barbarians, the axe and the knife, are common. Since, however, this population...preserves so many elements of Mycenaean art, the Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians of Lemnos may exist recognized every bit a remnant of a Mycenaean population."
^ French reports: "The fourth and final season of the survey of the Skourta plain was conducted in 1989 by Yard. and M.L.Z. Munn (ASCS). Explorations begun in 1985 and 1987 were extended into new parts of the plain and surrounding valleys, so that past now a representative portion (approximately 25%) of well-nigh of the inhabitable areas of the three koinotites of Pyli, Skourta, and Stefani take been examined intensively. 66 sites were discovered or studied for the commencement time in the course of this highly productive season, yielding a total of 120 premodern sites studied past our survey since 1985. The survey should have identified all major settlement sites (over 5 ha) and a representative sample of smaller sites in the study surface area. A summary of the chief conclusions to be drawn from the four seasons can be made...MH settlement is established on two summits overlooking the plain...one of which, Panakton...becomes the most substantial LH site in the expanse. A fortified MH settlement is as well established on a peak in rugged country beyond the NE border of the plain...between the Mazareika and Vountima valleys, in which other settlements are established in the LH era...The remoteness of this NE sector, and the not bad natural strength of the MH site and a nearby LH IIIC citadel...suggest that the inhabitants of these glens and crags sought to protect and dissever themselves from peoples beyond the peaks that surrounded them, peradventure because they were ethnically distinct and economically more or less independent of the Myc Greeks who dominated the plains. Traditions of Pelasgians in these mountains at the end of the BA raise the possibility that these may have been Pelasgian sites. In one case abandoned, in the LH IIIC or PG eras, most of these sites in the NE sector are non over again inhabited for well over a millennium. Elsewhere, inside the more accessible area of the Skourta manifestly itself, LH settlements are established on many sites which are subsequently again important in the C era..."

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

^ Abel 1966, p. 13: "Common 5th century tradition claimed not only that the Pelasgians were the oldest inhabitants of Hellenic republic and among the ancestors of the Greek heroes."; p. 49: "Fifth century opinion assumed that the Pelasgians were the ancestors of the heroic Greeks, e.one thousand. the ancestors of the Danaans, Arcadians and Athenians.".
^ Brug 1985, p. 41: "The Greek sources identify the Pelasgians as forerunners of the Greeks in the Peloponnesus and Attica.".
^ "Ionian". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved v Apr 2017.
^ Sakellariou 1977, pp. 101–104.
^ Beekes 2009, p. 1165.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} Strabo. Geography, 5.2.4.
^ Aristophanes. The Birds, 1355ff.
^ Murray 1960, p. 43.
^ Pokorny 1969, pp. 831–832.
^ Gladstone 1858, Chapter two, Section 3, "Derivation of the Pelasgian Name", pp. 211–215.
^ Klein 1966, "Pelasgian and Pelagic".
^ Gladstone 1858. The Pelasgians are covered specially in Volume I.
^ Homer. Iliad, two.840–two.843. The military camp at Troy is mentioned in Iliad, 10.428–10.429.
^ Not the aforementioned as the Larissa in Thessaly, Greece. Many towns bearing the same (or similar) name existed.
^ Homer. Odyssey, 19.175–19.177 (Robert Fagles'south translation).
^ Homer. Odyssey, Volume 19 (T.E. Lawrence's translation).
^ Homer. Iliad, 2.681–ii.684.
^ The location is never explicitly given. Gladstone shows, past process of emptying, that it must exist in the north of Thessaly. (Gladstone 1858, pp. 100–105.)
^ Homer. Iliad, 16.233–16.235.
^ Homer. Iliad, x.428.
^ Hesiod, fr. 319 M–W = Strabo. Geography, 7.vii.10.
^ Hesiod. Catalogue of Women, fr. 161 = Strabo. Geography, five.ii.4
^ Prichard 1841, p. 489.
^ Aeschylus. The Suppliants, Lines 249–259.
^ Aeschylus. The Suppliants, Lines 262–263.
^ Aeschylus. The Suppliants, Lines 128–129.
^ Aeschylus. The Suppliants, Lines 154–155.
^ Aeschylus. The Suppliants, Lines 279–281.
^ Sophocles & Dindorf 1849, Fragment 256 (p. 352).
^ Euripides. Orestes, Lines 857 and 933.
^ Euripides. The Phoenician Women, Line 107.
^ Ovid. Metamorphoses, 12.1.
^ Hecataeus of Miletus & Klausen 1831, Fragment 224 (p. 140).
^ Hecataeus of Miletus & Klausen 1831, Fragment 375 (p. 157).
^ Mentioned in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.1.
^ Hellanicus fr. 36, Fowler, p. 173 (apud Scholia (T+) Iliad three.75b); cf. Hellanicus fr. 7, Sturtz, pp. 49–51; Homer. Iliad, three.75.
^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.28.3 (citing Hellanicus, Phoronis) = Hellanicus fr. iv, Fowler, pp. 156–157; cf. Hellanicus fr. 76, Sturtz, pp. 108–109.
^ Briquel 2013, p. 47.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 1.56.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 1.57. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 32.)
^ Georges 1994, p. 134: "Herodotus, similar other Greeks, instinctively imagined the non-Dorian inhabitants of 'ancient' Hellenic republic—Achaeans, Argives, Danaans, Ionians, Pelasgians, Cadmeans, Lapiths, and all the remainder of the races of myth and epic—to be essentially "Greek" and ancestral to themselves, as Aeschylus imagined the Pelasgian Argives in the Supplices [...]".
^ Herodotus. Histories, i.56–1.58. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, pp. 32–33.)
^ Georges 1994, p. 131: "Herodotus argues well-nigh the very beginning of his work that virtually of the people who later became Hellenes were Pelasgians, and that these Pelasgians were barbarians and spoke a barbarian language. From these Pelasgians Herodotus derives the descent of the Ionians, too as that of all the other Greeks of the present 24-hour interval who are not Dorians (i.56.3–58) [...]".
^ Georges 1994, pp. 129–130.
^ Herodotus. Histories, one.58. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 33.)
^ Herodotus. Histories, two.51. The text allows two interpretations, that Pelasgians were indigenous there or that they had been resettled by Athens.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 2.51.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 2.56.
^ Herodotus. Histories, v.26.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 6.137–6.140.
^ Cadet 1979, p. 79.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 6.138.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 7.42.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 7.94.
^ Herodotus. Histories, seven.95. (Herodotus & Strassler 2009, p. 533.)
^ Herodotus. Histories, 8.44.
^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.three.2.
^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 2.sixteen–2.17.1.
^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, iv.109.four.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, 1.17.
^ ^a ^b Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, one.18.
^ ^a ^b Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, 1.19.
^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, i.nineteen–1.20.
^ Pausanias. Clarification of Greece, viii.ane.4.
^ Pausanias. Description of Hellenic republic, 8.i.5 and viii.1.6.
^ Pausanias. Clarification of Hellenic republic, 8.4.1.
^ Pausanias. Description of Greece, three.20.5.
^ Pausanias. Clarification of Hellenic republic, 7.2.ii.
^ Strabo. Geography, 5.2.viii.
^ Beekes 2014, p. 1.
^ García-Ramón 2004, pp. 999–1000.
^ Beekes 2018, "109. Pelasgian", pp. 1873–1874.
^ Mihaylova 2012, pp. 80–81.
^ Lytton 1837, pp. v–8.
^ Harrison 1998, pp. 25–26: "Herodotus' account, for instance, of the adoption by the Pelasgians of the names of the gods (ii.52.i) suggests a much closer relationship between the Pelasgian and Greek languages. Earlier they heard the names of the gods, the Pelasgians (assuming, interestingly, the being of a number of gods) called them simply θεοί, on the grounds that they had 'established (θέντες) all diplomacy in their order'. This etymology, advanced apparently in all seriousness, seems to propose that the Pelasgians spoke a language at to the lowest degree 'akin to' Greek."
^ Larcher, Pierre-Henri (1844). Notes on Herodotus: Historical and Disquisitional Comments on the History of Herodotus, with a Chronological Table. Whittaker. p. 54. If this amalgamation of language be admitted, then the Pelasgians and Greeks were of the same race.
^ Finkelberg 2006.
^ Georgiev 1961.
^ Georgiev 1977.
^ Hahn 1854, Iv. Sind Dice Albanesen Autochthonen?, pp. 211–279.
^ Mackridge, Peter (2007–2008). "Aspects of linguistic communication and identity in the Greek peninsula since the eighteenth century". The Newsletter of the Society Farsarotul. Vol. XXI & XXII, no. 1 & 2. Society Farsarotul. pp. 16–17. Soon after this the "Pelasgian theory" was formulated, according to which the Greek and Albanian languages were claimed to have a mutual origin in Pelasgian, while the Albanians themselves are Pelasgians and hence come up from the aforementioned ethnological stock every bit the Greeks. The "Pelasgian theory" began to take shape in the 1850s and 1860s and became widespread in the 1870s. ... Needless to say, in that location is absolutely no scientific evidence to back up any of these theories. {{cite mag}}: CS1 maint: appointment format (link)
^ Schwandner-Sievers & Fischer 2002; Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and Bernd Jürgen Fischer, editors of Albanian Identities: Myth and History, present papers resulting from the London Conference held in 1999 entitled "The Office of Myth in the History and Development of Albania." The "Pelasgian" myth of Albanians as the nearly aboriginal community in southeastern Europe is amid those explored in Noel Malcolm's essay, "Myths of Albanian National Identity: Some Key Elements, Equally Expressed in the Works of Albanian Writers in America in the Early Twentieth Century". The introductory essay by Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers establishes the context of the "Pelasgian Albanian" mythos, applicable to Eastern Europe more often than not, in terms of the longing for a stable identity in a rapidly opening club.
^ Van Windekens 1952.
^ Van Windekens 1960.
^ As, for example, in Gordon Messing'due south extended review, criticizing signal-by-point, in Language xxx.1 (January–March 1954), pp. 104–108.
^ Schachermeyr 1976; Mellaart 1965–1966; Mellaart 1975, "Southeastern Europe: The Aegean and the Southern Balkans".
^ Beekes 2009.
^ Grote 1862, pp. 43–44.
^ Graves 1990, Volume 1. Graves also imaginatively reconstructs a "Pelasgian cosmos myth", which involves a creatrix "Eurynome" and a snake "Ophion".
^ Diakonoff, I. M. (28 June 2013). Early Antiquity. University of Chicago Press. p. 317. ISBN978-0-226-14467-2.
^ Millar, R. (21 July 2010). Authority and Identity: A Sociolinguistic History of Europe earlier the Modern Age. Springer. p. 39. ISBN978-0-230-28203-2. In the Greek islands and possibly as well the Peloponnese were speakers of a language scholars sometimes telephone call Minoan, after the nifty civilization associated with Crete in the second millenium BCE, or Eteo-Cretan. It is probably the language of the Minoan A script, which has largely escaped deciphering. A number of scholars consider this to be essentially the aforementioned language as Pelasgian.
^ Budin, Stephanie Lynn (2009). The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 404. ISBN978-0-19-537984-6.
^ Gordeziani 1985.
^ Kaigi 1969, One thousand. Thou. Abdushelishvili, "The Genesis of the Aboriginal Population of the Caucasus in the Light of Anthropological Data".
^ Watson, Rubie S. (1999). Retentiveness, History and Opposition: Under State Socialism. Boydell & Brewer, Limited. p. 163. ISBN978-0-85255-902-4.
^ Prokopiou & Smith 1964, pp. 21–22.
^ Immerwahr 1971, p. 19: "Information technology is the Tardily Neolithic period that provides most of our parallels, however, curiously, the striking Dimini-type painted wares of Thessaly are completely lacking, and there is only ane pocket-sized recognisable sherd of the related Mattpainted ware of Central and Southern Greece."
^ Palaeolexicon: The Linear B word ra-mi-ni-ja
^ Heffner 1927, pp. 123–124.
^ The American Forum for Global Teaching 2000.
^ French 1989–1990, "Skourta Evidently project", p. 35.

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